Does online profiling mirrors or creates identities Free Essays

string(40) " of our identity just like race or sex\." Introduction WHAT IS ONLINE PROFILING. Online consumer profiling is a complex phenomena that can be researched from a variety of perspectives. First of all, it is obviously an advertising technique that revolutionized the effectiveness of targeted advertising. We will write a custom essay sample on Does online profiling mirrors or creates identities or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, online consumer profiling is not just a smart way to reach consumers. Consumer profiling has been present in advertising for a long time now, with theorists arguing about its possible effects on society and consumers. Greg Elmer(2004), in his work ‘Profiling machines: Mapping the Personal Information Economy’ provides an overview of some of the standpoints with regards to profiling. From the perspective of Foucault’s famous concept of panopticon, profiling is presented as means of exercising surveillance in the societies of control(Elmer, 2004). Foucault suggests that in such societies the differences between reward and punishment are blurred(Emler, 2004), this can be illustrated by some of the online consumer profiling techniques. For example, checking the weather forecast online, usually requires from us typing in our zip code. This initial reward( i.e the perspective of getting free and accurate information on weather in our area) ends up being a punishment. Ultimately, we provide advertisers with important geographic data that can then be used for consumer profiling. Similarly to Foucault, Dandekre (cited in Elmer, 2004) sees profiling as a part of society of control. In fact, according to Dandekre, profiling is a sign of modern surveillance which signifies the shift from the supervision to bureaucratic surveillance, which is a lot more invasive and depends highly on technology. Elmer(2004) states that profiling is an ongoing distribution and collection of information about desires, habits and location of groups or individuals. Moreover, Elmer(2004) suggests that consumers actively assist in creating profiling databases, as all collected data are being cross referenced. Lyon(The Electronic Eye: The Rise of Surveillance Society, 1994) seems to share this view, as he sees consumers as self communicating entities, triggering their own inclusion into system of surveillance, that works through a series of seductions and solicitations. In terms of profiling effects on society, there are two main standpoints. Gandy(1993) in The Panopticon: a Political Economy of Personal Information views profiling as a system of sorting both individuals and whole communities into abstract categories that is unavoidably discriminatory. He continues to say that this system forces individuals wants and desires into ‘larger, rationalized and easily diagnosable profiles’(Elmer,2004,23). On the other hand, R.A Clarke(‘Information Technology and Dataveillance, 1988) sees profiling as a system of predicting ‘deviant behavior’ and fails to recognize possible risk of prejudice or discrimination. Early works on profiling seem to focus more on the effects it has on communities, as profiling was seen more as a part of the shift towards technology. However, with the fast development of internet and more advanced profiling techniques there seem to be more interest in the position of the individual in the process of online consumer profiling. WHAT IS IDENTITY According to John Deighton(2005), who analyzed the consumer identity motives in the information age, identity can be defined as a cluster of characteristics that we display in a social setting (2005,236). In the digital setting, the characteristics that construct identity are being grouped, coded and manipulated. In the cybernetic sense identity is used as a point of reference for who one is or aspires to be(236). Author stresses the crucial part identity plays in analyzing consumption, as it could be a source of information on one’s habits, dislikes or desires. When discussing identity, Deighton(2005) also touches up on the notion of ‘being identified’(237). Being ‘identified’ means to be observed or recognized and in the off-line setting, this notion relies heavily on the facial/physical recognition. However, in the digital world, it is our online activity that enables us to be identified. The lack of ‘face’ in the digital setting, creates space for us to take on many identities. Deighton(2005) (247) sees identity as an opposite of anonymity and suggest that in an online world, we lose our anonymity by simply ‘signing in’. With that in mind, the techniques used to identify an individual online provoke many theoretical questions about the authenticity of online identity. boyd(2001) maintains that users need to gain awareness of the data they leave online, in order to construct truthful identities. However, because as online users, we have no control or knowledge on what data is being archived there is no way to verify its accuracy. Boyd does not necessarily condemn all corporate efforts to ‘reconstruct’ the individual through digital data. Her focus seem to remain on consumers’ right to access the collected data and use to build self-awareness(46). She introduces the concept of a digital mirror(53), linked to Lancan’s mirror stage of development, during which a child acknowledges themselves as a unique individual for the first time(53). Boyd(2001) maintains that the lack of material body online, pushes users into using digital representations, that serve as an online agent co nstructing our identity. Through online personal profiles, we gain an illusion of control over our online identity. However, boyd(2001) stresses that even though we hold control over a limited amount of information, the way we perceive ourselves online is different from the way others see us(53). In that respect, boyd(2001) puts a particular emphasis on the data aggregation online, which means that information on our current online activity is combined with the information from the past(53). It is argued that providing users with information on their personal data that can be accessed by third parties, would allow to provide feedback and adjust one’s online behavior and as a result gain greater control over their online identity.(54) One of the most important issues in online consumer profiling is the notion of individual versus consumer identity. Gandy(1993) maintains that profiling categorizes one’s desires and wants into broader and simplified profiles. Therefore, how accurately does it mirror one’s personalityIs consumer identity different from our non-consumer identityAre they one and the same thingOr is consumer identity simply a part of our identity just like race or sex. You read "Does online profiling mirrors or creates identities" in category "Essay examples"This and similar questions are being posed by theorists researching online consumer profiling. Similarly to Daighton(2005), Zwick and Dholakia(2004) in ‘Whose identity is it anywayConsumer Identity in the age of Database marketing’ stress that today consumer is no longer anonymous due to the ‘digitazation ‘of the market space. This means that once information became digital it can be stored in the database for years and shared as a binary bit. Authors seem to lean towards the post-structuralist perspective of data based marketing technologies as a discourse, which constructs a consumer as a cultural object and then uses as a target for marketing purposes. Due to the fast development of profiling techniques, an online consumer can be tracked and analyzed during every minute of their online activity. This information can provide an invaluable insight into consumer’s nature. Zwick and Dholakia(2004) suggest that market database becomes consumer’s identity and therefore has to be looked at as a form of language, as it attempts to make sense of the world and create a system of representation. Drawing from Foucault’s, Zwick and Dholakia(2004), state that every system of representation, in no matter what form, articulate newly ordered spaces of knowledge, in which an object of representation becomes(†¦) known.(p.3) Acknowledging market databases as a form of language, enables us to look at consumers as cultural objects. Ziwck and Dholakia(2004) suggest that because of market databases’ linguistic power, our own ability to construct identity is threatened. Consumers become objects constituted through the performative powers of market database discourse. Limited ability of consumers to construct their own identity is one of the effects of online consumer profiling and database marketing, discussed by Zwick and Dholakia(2004). This is because consumers are lacking control over the language that constitutes their identities. In that respect, consumers’ participation is denied in the digital market space. To put simply, it could be suggested that online profiling constructs and forces identities upon consumers. ZwickDholakia(2004)stress that most databases do not refer back to the consumers after tracking and analyzing their online activity. This can suggest that these databases are being created to suit marketer’s needs rather than to truthfully reflect consumers’ identities. More importantly, the accuracy of such databases can easily be undermined. One consumer is most likely to be recorded in several databases that can differ in focus, structure and size. In this case, databases construct multitude of representation of the same consumer, who is being assigned several different persona to take on in the digital marketplace. This results in, consumer being ‘a blended, digital simulation whose ‘nature’ depends on the composition of the databses’(Zwick and Dholakia,38 2004) Zwick and Dholakia(2004) see online profiling mainly as means to construct a customer rather than to reflect a customers’ identity. Authors acknowledge consumers’ minor participation, in the process of creating database, which is limited to acts of online consumption. However, consumers do not have the control over how much and what kind of information is being collected, despite numerous online privacy options. Zwick and Dholakia(2004), unlike most theorists, do not seem to be preoccupied with the issue of online privacy with regards to online profiling. Authors suggest that, in most cases, the creation of online consumer identities takes place without the participation of a ‘real’ consumer. KEY ISSUES: The diffusion of internet-freedom or constrain? The issue of increased internet control has been raised also by David Bell(in CREEBER 2008), who talks about the diffusion of the internet. On one hand internet can be seen as empowering and reaching towards greater openness and freedom of speech and access to information. On the other hand, internet’s great ability to control and dominate its users is becoming more apparent. Furthermore, Bell(2008) notices how internet is being used by corporate capitalism to influence users and propagate its agendas. With that respect, Bell appears to share Henry Jenkins’ view of digital divide and monopolization of internet by corporations.(Creeber, 2008) However, the issue that Bell(2008) seems concerned with the most is the invasive nature of internet. Nowadays, he argues, we tend to evacuate real life into digital spaces. Social networking sites and e-commerce are equivalents of aspects of life that used to belong to ‘real’ life. Not only, do we live a significant part of life online, we also bring cyberspace into real life. With the emergence of new technologies like Ipads and mobiles with internet connection we can experience cyberspace, with all its flaws and advantages, almost all the time(Bell, 2008). This extreme growth in internet usage and accessibility opens a whole new world to consumer profiling. danah boyd examines the connections between identity and participation in social networking websites. She illustrates the great extent to which social networking sites ‘invaded’ the offline world. In ‘None of this is Real Identity and Participation in Friendster’(2008) author mentions the ubiquity of Friendster in the surrounding offline world. With people signed in on the website on their laptops in a local cafe, rockstars encouraging fans to join the online community during a concert and social networking websites being a topic of conversation in offline social situation(boyd, 2008), online advertising platforms become a part of popular culture. McAllister and Matthew(2003) talk about the increasingly blurring differences between commercial and popular culture. With the intrusion of commercial values on popular culture, advertisers gain the ability to brand spaces from outside of commercial culture and therefore manipulate consumers to engage with consumer culture at all times. However, the synergy of popular and commercial culture is not the only factor facilitating the development of online advertising. The lack of understanding and clear distinction between private and public in the online environment (Stern, 2004), often leads to users sharing more information that they would in an offline environment, resulting in internet being an extremely important source of consumer information(Faber et al, 2004). Faber et al point out that one of the fastest developing trends in online advertising is research analyzing content areas not traditionally associated with advertising, for example internet sponsorship(2004,3). Marketers ability to track user’s online activity, offers the opportunity to generate ‘personalized’ advertising. Faber et al refers to information flexibility(2004,11) to describe the phenomenon of tailoring advertisements to suit needs and desires of particular customers. Faber et al maintains that personalization of banner ads, increases the likelihood of user engaging in the ad(2004,5). Personalized ad can be key-word activated or generated using consumer database(2004,5). Gadzheva(2007) maintains that due to the development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) much more personal data is being processed online, making it extremely difficult to supervise(2007,63). Any traces of data ‘left’ by a user during their online activity can be correlated to produce consumer profiles, usually without user’s knowledge(2007,64). Although consumers are often portrayed as victims of internet technology, Glen Creeber(2008) in his work, provides and alternative perspective on approaches towards internet and its effect on individuals. Postmodern standpoint sees consumption as a basis of today’s existence with consumer culture determining cultural sphere of our life(Creeber, 2008). This approach looks at technology as a way of improving audience’s active participation and is a lot more positive than some of the standpoints that often demonize new media. Creeber(2008), drawing on Levinson’s work, suggests that postmodern audience is seen as participants rather than just voyeurs. Similarly, post structuralist perspective assumes that audience is able to resist ideological meanings present in the new media advertising(Creeber, 2008). It also acknowledges audiences’ role in creating the meanings, as post structuralism focuses more on how new media messages are being decoded by the audience, rather than how producers encode them. This approach has been highly criticized by more skeptical theorists. Postman(1985 Amusing ourselves to death ) points out that the alleged choice and active participation offered by the internet is only illusionary. In reality, because internet has been monopolized by corporations, it reduces options available to audience to the same commodified, consumerist produc(Creeber,21, 2008). Critics of post structuralism and post modernism perceive audience as not being able to acknowledge the illusionary nature of the propaganda messages conveyed by the internet. KEY ISSUES ONLINE vers. OFFLINE IDENTITY With different approaches to internet audience, internet profiling, needs to be looked at from the perspective of consumer identities. In simplified terms, internet profiling aims to study consumers’ identities using a variety of data available online. Data used for the analysis is consumers personal information but also their needs and desires, often expressed through their consumer choices. Therefore, from marketers point of view, to reach ‘a true’ insight into one’s identity, consumer has to be analyzed from the perspective of the identity signaling . This approach, however, provokes a debate over how truthful such analysis could be. Berger and Heath(2007) suggest that consumers buy products not only for their function but also for what they symbolize, we buy products but also the ideologies behind them. Partially, our consumer choices are based on what products we feel express or match our personality, life style. However, we also make consumer choices that aim at constructing our desired identity(Berger and Heath, 2007) Of course, it is not only advertisers who scrutinise our consumer choices, it is also others who make assumption about our preferences or social status based on our purchases(Berger and Heath, 2007).Drawing on McCracken’s concept of meaning movement, Berger and Heath (2007) suggests that individuals’ tastes communicate identity, as others make assumptions based on the groups or â€Å"types† of individuals that are commonly associated with particular taste . It is argued, however, that using a similar model of ‘associations’, advertisers are in charge of creating norms of behaviour for consumers(Beckett, 2008, Reflective consumer). Advertisers anticipate consumer’s needs and desires by cross referencing online activity of other, similar consumers. Therefore apart from responding to current consumer’s needs, advertisers also aim at developing those needs. Rettberg Walker (2009) examines the ways in which social media create representations of its users. Author focuses on the data filtering mechanisms, employed by social media in order to offer us simplified templates or narratives of our life. Rettberg-Walker sees those representations as positive phenomena, enabling consumers to analyse their own life, made out of data retrieved from the internet. Author stresses also that in the 21st century we become used to online technologies and acknowledge our participation in the online environment. Internet offers us a chance to express our identities rather than uncritically accept the mass media representations of the world (436). Rettberg-Walker also acknowledges the limitations of users participation in the web. Author maintains that freedom of expression online is nowadays greatly controlled by commercial interest and mass customisation based on templates and segments. The literal example of this phenomena, would be social networking si tes that provide users with templates to fill in with personal data(460). Rettberg- Walker’s interest focuses on how we construct personal narratives in response to larger cultural templates, often exploited by mass media. Even though Rettberg-Walker, states that most internet users will follow the existing templates and copy the already generated content, it’s the individual contributions to larger cultural templates that matter (460). One could suggest that ‘template generated’ identity lacks authenticity or creativity, however Rettberg-Walker argues that above all it provides a sense of belonging, as observing our life displayed online in a similar manner to celebrities, for example, we gain the feeling of inclusion into a larger cultural template(464). The longing for the inclusion into larger cultural patterns may be rooted in the modern issue of social and psychological identity. Gabriel Lang(2006) in Unmanageable Consumer examines the issues of modern identity and its relation to consumption. Author suggest that a modern day individual constructs their identity through consumption and it is the consumer ethic, rather than work, that lays at the basis of our existence(84). One could argue that Lang’s point of view constitutes the basis for online profiling. Thus, if in modernity identities are being constructed through consumption, then marketers are right in ‘profiling’ users based on their online consumption patterns. Allison Hear expands the concept of identity construction through consumption and analyses the idea of ‘self-branding’, being a form of project of the self that leads to increasingly blurred distinctions between product and consumer. Hear explains that self-branding constitutes of conscious construction of self-images through the usage of mass media cultural representations and templates of mainstream cultural industries, which leads to generating value and material profit(198). Hear draws attention to significant differences between exercising branded self in an online and ‘real world’ environment. Author stresses that today social network sites are the centre of both social interactions as well as consumption(210). Social network sites enable users to manage their own online profiles and connect with other users, who engage in similar activities. Each user creates an online representation of their identity or particular aspects of it. Allison maintains tha t it is the ‘questionnaire like’ formats of social network profiles that encourage users to reveal their preferences, mainly in relation to mass media culture, consequently exposing their specific consumer tastes (210). The important notion of self branding on social network sites revolves around the multiplicity of roles that a user takes on online. By carefully designing our online representations, we become authors or as Allison puts it ‘actors’ of our own digital narratives. However, we also act as ‘promotional objects’, displaying chosen traits of our personality to convey a particular message and its symbolic appeal, in order to create value of our representations(211). Allison argues that this approach encourages users to perceive themselves as ‘commodities’, not only because of the ‘branded’ nature of the profiles they create but also the ongoing contest of popularity on the social network websites. Users add n umerous ‘friends’ to their profiles, in order to display their popularity in the social circle(211). Users profiles, according to Allison, are both created and consumed as a commodity. However, another important aspect of online self-branding, is the advertisement aspect of all popular social network sites, which appear to be a perfect platform for reaching a specific segment of consumers. It is to do with their ability to attract specific type of demographics and deliver advertisements in a ‘non-intrusive’ way. Users often engage with the advertisements out of their own will, by ,for example, joining a group dedicated to a specific brand or product. Advertisers set up profiles of particular products, which users can add to their ‘friends list’ and then receive regular updates alongside with information on their ‘real’ friends. This increasingly tight bond between product and consumer, is concluded by Allison as a collapse of distinctions between notions of the self, processes of production and consumption(212). With the products invading the digital representations of users identities, marketers reach a new way of promoting the brand. It is the users that are made to ‘work’ and spread the popularity of a product. Allison suggests that the process of self branding is a form of labour, which serves people to transform nature into objects of their imagination(213). Without a doubt creating a digital representation of one’s self involves a substantial amount of labour, revolving around choosing the right aspects of our identity to be represented. In that sense, it is no different from self-presentation in a real world environment. However, the problem with digital representation of one’s self seem to be based around the exploitation of the self-branding labour. One could argue, that the digital profiles of users, no longer serve to represent their identity but to promote a particular product. CONSUMPTION AND DATA PROFILING Antony Becket(2008) provides an overview of Peppers and Rogers work that examines the shift from traditional marketing to collaborative marketing. Authors provide a critique of mass marketing as well as describe the mechanisms of customer relationship management, which lays at the basis of collaborative marketing. Online targeting, through suggestion and recommendations, is a perfect example of marketer’s attempt to implement a more interactive ‘one to one’ marketing. Peppers and Rogers(Beckett, 2008) see technology as a vital part of developing customer-producer relationship as well as forming customer identity. Beckett(2008) focuses also on debates on power relations between producers and consumers, with special emphasis on the role of consumer. Beckett(2008) suggests that modern social theory of identity construction, as the ’reflexive’ self is highly related to contemporary patterns of consumption. In today’s world we engage in an ongoing process of identity formation through active, reflexive decisions, including our consumer choices. Reflexive consumption is seen by some as liberating as it offers consumers the opportunity to construct desired identities. On the other hand, Beckett maintains that reflexivity could be looked at from the perspective of governmentality, as locating individuals in relation to power and authority(Becket,2008,302). Becket continues to say, that from this perspective reflexivity could be seen as a mechanism of control and domination, through shaping consumers’ needs and desires to suit particular agenda. Becket(2008) also discusses Peppers’ and Rogers’ extended critique of mass marketing and their claim about RM and CRM being a remedy to problems with mass marketing. Peppers and Rogers identified three main critiques of mass marketing : the loss of consumer’s individuality, inability to recognize loyal and non-loyal customers and lack of dialogue between producers and customers. Authors suggest that marketing should shift away from the concepts of mass marketing and aim at establishing collaborative marketing, which engages customers in ongoing, collaborative activities with the producers(2008,304). Collaborative marketing aims at ‘identifying’ the individual consumers and classifying them based on their value to the producer. Therefore, in order to achieve that, producer has to engage the consumer into the technologies that allow to ‘get to know’ them.(2008,306). Becket(2008) suggests that with the emergence of complex softwares and databases, customer relationship management has reached another level of customer classification. It is because of the emergence of innovative tracking technologies that producers are being given the power to govern and influence individuals’ needs and customer value. Becket(2008,306) gives example of loyalty cards or electronic databases to illustrate how consumers are being involved in a network of ‘surveillance’ technologies. Becket(2008, seems to clearly mark his opinion on whether markets create people’s needs and identities. Author states that producer can nowadays anticipate and alter possible future purchases. One way of doing it is by comparison with other shoppers. This would suggest that consumers are being categorised and altered to fit the ‘norm’. The process of ‘normalisation’ can be executed through for example, recommendation ads or personalised e-mails. In the eyes of producers, customers become an active participant when they respond to those recommendations(Becket, 2008,308). Manipulation, according to Becket (2008), happens on two levels. First level is based on creating norms of behaviour through recommendations ads. Secondly, producers aim at engaging consumers with the market, in order to turn them into savvy, active participants. In reality, it is just another way to programme customers to be susceptible to marketing techniques. However, is there perhaps another way of looking at the mechanisms of collaborative marketing’After all, as Becket(2008) reminds us, the goals of customer relationship marketing promise an improved lifestyle for the customer. ‘Active’ consumers have the chance to engage with marketers to satisfy their needs and better the quality of their life through consumption. Becket(2008), drawing on Peppers and Rogers work, presents an alternative version of society, where consumers are not necessarily simply either manipulated or authoritative. The reflexive consumption, puts consumers in a position of collaborator. Peppers and Rogers(Becket, 2008, 311) present a vision where consumption is liberating, as a consumer can reach a better life style through ‘active’ consumption. All in all, Becket’s(2008) work comes down to a dilemma between collaborative marketing offering a greater freedom, wider variety of choice and life style improvement achieved through consumption and collaborative marketing being a constrain mechanism, that promotes ‘unnatural’ need for consumption. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS The problem of online profiling provokes a debate over the increasing intervention of technology into our privacy. There has been a considerable amount of literature devoted to the problem of blurred distinctions between private and public in the online environment. However, the problem of the influence of recommendation ads on the identity construction has not gathered enough direct attention. Although, the debate on the diffusion of the internet is strongly linked to the issue of online targeting. Since, if internet can be seen both as liberating and constraining, so does online targeting. On one hand, online targeting offers liberation through direct marketing, enhanced, individualized consumption. On the other hand, it traps us in categories of norms of behaviour, tricks us to believe that the recommendation ad has been generated especially for us and therefore are suitable for us. However, acknowledging the increasing influence of targeted advertising on creating norms of behaviour which ultimately aims at shaping our online behaviour, brings up social anxieties with regards to online surveillance. Sceptics may question the extent to which targeted advertising can shape one’s identity. Nonetheless, it cannot be ignored that targeted advertising exercise the power to reinforce social divisions(Lyon,1994,156). Through targeting consumers based on the information available online, which places them into particular segments, online advertising mimics the existing social divides. It is the advertisers who predicts our tastes and decide on our value. These sorting mechanism result in groups of consumers being excluded from particular advertising simply because of their consumer profile. Lyon(1994,156) maintains that when analysing the nature of modern consumption surveillance, we have to take into consideration both how data-subject are constituted as consumers and how their consumption pattern is being interpreted through the means of commercial surveillance. Without a doubt, online targeted advertising is an issue surrounded with controversy and ethical dilemmas. With the fast development of new media technologies and general synergy of popular and consumer culture, the role it plays in defining modern society becomes more apparent. References: Berger, J. A Heath, C. (2007). Where Consumers Diverge from Others: Identity Signalling and Product Domains. Journal of Consumer Research. 34 (August), pp.121-130. Creeber,G Martin, R (2008). Digital cultures: Understanding the media. Milton Keyns: Open University Press. 11-46 . Elmer, G (2004) Profiling Machines: Mapping the Personal Information Technology. United States of America: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Gandy, O.H (1993) The panoptic sort : a political economy of personal information. Oxford: Westview Press. Clarke R. (1988) Information Technology and Dataveillance. Retrieved from http://www.rogerclarke.com/DV/CACM88.html on 14th of February 2011. McAllister, P (2003) Is Commercial Culture Popular CultureA Question for Popular Communication Scholars. Popular Communication, 2003, Vol. 1 Issue 1, p41- 49p. Lyon, D (1994) The Electronic Eye: The Rise of surveillance Society. United states of America: Univeristy of Minessota Press. Rottberg Walker, J (2009)Freshly Generated for you and Barack Obama: How Social Media Represent Your Life. European Journal of Communication 24,pp.451-466. Zwick, D Dholakia, N. (2004). Whose Identity Is It AnywayConsumer Representation in the Age of Database Marketing. Journal of Macromarketing. 24 (31), pp.31-41. How to cite Does online profiling mirrors or creates identities, Essay examples

The Aztecs A Case Study Essay Example For Students

The Aztecs: A Case Study Essay The Aztecs are an ancient culture that had many customs and rituals that by modern standards are considered barbaric. Their culture was made up of different social classes, and was primitive yet very advanced. They were located in the mainland of Mexico, and their empire was quite vast over that area. Their culture began around 1100, and ended around 1520. The exact numbers of the Aztecs is not known due to the age of their culture, but judging by the size of their empire it was quite large. The only figure I could find was that in 1519 there were more than 1,000,000 people living in the civilizations boundaries. The reason that I was drawn to this culture was some of the practices that they had. We will write a custom essay on The Aztecs: A Case Study specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The most interesting being the human sacrifices to the gods, and the large ball game that they played that sometimes went on for days without a stop. The Aztecs lived primarily in a fertile volcanic valley of Mexico where they built their capital city named Tenochtitlan. The land in which they lived was a plateau seeing that most of the surrounding was mountainous. The soil in the settled areas was very rich and good for growing crops, due to the volcanic eruptions that occurred. The valley of Mexico was the heartland of Aztec civilization. It is a large internally drained basin surrounded by volcanic mountains that are as high as 9,000 ft in elevation. Thousands of years of soil erosion had produced deep, rich soils in the valley and a system of shallow, swampy, salt lakes in its center. This gave the Aztecs a diverse variety of foods that could be available. The salty lakes made available fish, turtles, insect larvae, blue-green algae, and salt. The food that was eaten by the Aztecs varied by social classes. The peasants lived mainly on corn and beans, except for a duck or a crow that they may have trapped in their garden. Their only domesticated animals were rabbits, dogs, and turkeys which were fattened and eaten on special occasions. Corn was the main food of The Aztecs and many foods were made fresh daily from it. Every morning the woman of the family would grind up fresh corn, and make bread for the day. The higher classed people, however, enjoyed eating turtles and crabs imported from the coast. It was odd to the Spaniards to find that one of the delicacies of the Aztecs was dog. Aztec homes also differed by social class, peasants built their huts around the edge of the city. While handymen lived nearer to the center in mud-brick houses. In each of these homes there was normally a mudbrick tub, and they all consisted of a single room. Nobles that were higher in society lived in palaces built of whitewashed stone, and with over a hundred rooms, and were built around the main plaza. Inside of all houses the rooms were almost bare, light came in from wooden torches and round the room were stored the familys possessions and objects of daily use. Even palaces had no doors but instead had cloth hung over openings, this allowed for cool air to circulate throughout the house. For the Aztecs clothing was way of showing social status, so there were very strict laws about who could wear what. An ordinary citizen wore a loincloth and cloak, which had to be made of plain undyed maguey-fiber cloth. And if they were caught wearing sandals in the palace they were put to death. Nobles wore cotton cloaks with borders of precious stones. Craftsmen were able to dye the cotton green, and other colors; they also wove geometric designs into their cloak to symbolize their status in the culture. The Aztecs loved to wear jewelry, but there were also strict laws about this. .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb , .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .postImageUrl , .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb , .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:hover , .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:visited , .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:active { border:0!important; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:active , .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1eadf8c39bd7f91df38a7276dd830fdb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What is Amulet Essay Most people pierced their ears to hold plugs of shell or polished stones. Nobles were allowed to wear gold and carved precious stones in their lower lips to show their high rank. Farmers were among the lowest in the dress, they slept in their loincloth, and in the morning he got his blanket and tied it around his shoulder and he

Exam 1 American History Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

Exam 1 American History Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers Exam 1 American History How many languages did Native American groups in North America speak in 1492? The groups in Mexico and above spoke between 300 and 350 different languages. So we can't think of American Indians as simply one group-it is exactly the opposite. Which Pre-Columbian culture is most known for the human sacrifice and cannibalism? (Aztecs) Spaniards were particularly appalled at the Aztec's practices of human sacrifice, connected with their fertility rituals. What was the level of cultural advancement of the Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas compared to other Indian groups ( and the Spanish)? The Indians were more set in their ways. The Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas were more advanced. Their "communities" "cities" "land" was more elaborate and larger than the Indians. What was the main characteristic of the "New Monarchs" compared to previous rulers in Europe? These Monarchs recruited national armies(not private like before) imposed national taxes, and also brought about national court systems. They brought about a measure of control and political stability, so there was actually less fighting-even though wars would now be in larger scale. Essentially now instead of thousands and thousands of little kingdoms under local control we now have the equivalent of the modern nation-state, which is much more likely to foster things like exploration and discovery. Technological advances were becoming more frequent. These were not only new advances, scholars had rediscovered many Greek, Roman, and Arab texts that changed the Europeans views of the natural world. Also the printing press was invented by Gutenberg in the 1440s which helped spread knowledge and thus accelerating technological advancements. Who were the first Europeans to explore West Africa and exploit African Labor? The first Europeans to sail the coast of West Africa were the Portuguese. The Portuguese were interested in gold and slaves, but the African Nations were too strong for Portugal to simply take these militarily. The Portuguese would deal with the local African elites. As slaves became needed, local leaders found more ways to collect the numbers. What was Columbus's major miscalculation on his first voyage? Columbus thought that Asia was 3000 miles west of Spain, when it was actually 10000 miles west of Spain. He thought the world was actually a lot smaller than it actually is. He did not realize anything lay between Europe and Asia. What did the treaty of Tordesillas (1494) do? Spain claimed all of this new territory (America) even before they knew what or where it was. Portugal also claimed the new territory thinking it was a new route to India which they claimed control of. To avoid war the two countries got arbitration from the pope (head of the Christian church) and in the treaty of Tordesillas the New World was divided between the Spanish and the Portuguese. Because they didn't know what all of this looked like Spain received almost all of the New World and Portugal received only part of brazil. Who was the German Monk who started the Protestant Reformation in Europe? Martin Luther (1517) Wrote 95 thesis to the church door in Wittenburg, Germany. These were public complaints against abuses, especially indulgences. Luther went a step further and criticized the idea of penance- where a priest would assign a specific task to absolve him of that particular sin. He suggested that the term "do penance" should be interpreted as simply "repent". Luther believed that god made every decision and that man actually didn't decide things like his own salvation. What came about as a result of the Act of Supremacy (1534)? In 1534 Henry VIII with parliamentary support enacted the act of supremacy in which Henry declared himself head of the Church of England. After several very confusing years following Henry's death his daughter Elizabeth came to the throne and brought about political stability. There was still controversy over whether England was Catholic or Protestant. They had switched a couple of times after Henry's death. Who wrote the Institutes of the Christian Religion? John Calvin (1536) Predestination meant that god had chosen some people to be saved and some to be damned. Individuals did not have the right to choose god, instead god chose them. Calvinists were forever searching for a sign that they were in fact among the elect ( chosen ones). So essentially they said that if you

Spoken English - Definition and Examples

Spoken English s Definition: The ways in which the English language is transmitted through a conventional system of sounds. Compare to written English. Spoken English, says linguist David Crystal, is the more natural and widespread mode of transmission, though ironically the one which most people find much less familiarpresumably because it is so much more difficult to see what is happening in speech than in writing (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed., 2003). In recent years, linguists have found it easier to see what is happening in speech through the availability of corpus resourcescomputerized databases containing real life examples of both spoken and written English. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999) is a contemporary reference grammar of English based on a large-scale corpus. The study of speech sounds (or spoken language) is the branch of linguistics known as phonetics. The study of sound changes in a language is phonology. See also: Speech (Linguistics)ColloquialConversationConversation AnalysisDialogueKey Events in the History of the English LanguagePresent-Day English (PDE)Standard EnglishVernacularWhat Is Standard English? Examples and Observations: Academic Bias Against Spoken English[L]inguists have inevitably had a long-standing and intensive contact with standard English. The nature of standard English as primarily a written variety, together with the immersion of academics in written English, does not augur well for their recognition of structures that may be more typical of spoken English than written English.(Jenny Cheshire, Spoken Standard English. Standard English: The Widening Debate, ed. by Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts. Routledge, 1999) The Relationship Between Spoken and Written English[I]n the course of the languages history, the relationship between spoken and written English has come nearly full circle. Throughout the Middle Ages, written English predominately served transcript functions, enabling readers to represent earlier spoken words or (oral) ceremony, or to produce durable records of events, ideas, or spoken exchange. By the seventeenth century, the written (and printed) word was developing its own autono mous identity, a transformation that matured in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and first half of the twentieth centuries. (However, through at least the end of the nineteenth century, spoken rhetorical skills were also seen as critically important to people with social and educational aspirations.) Since World War II, written English (at least in America) has increasingly come to reflect everyday speech. While writing on-line with computers has hastened this trend, computers didnt initiate it. As writing growingly mirrors informal speech, contemporary spoken and written English are losing their identity as distinct forms of language.(Naomi S. Baron, Alphabet to Email: How Written English Evolved and Where Its Heading. Routledge, 2000) Teaching IlliteracyOne main danger is that spoken English continues to be judged by the codified standards of written English, and that teaching pupils to speak standard English may, in fact, be to teach them to speak in formal written English. A test of spoken English may become a test of ones abilities to speak a very restricted codea formal English used routinely by dons, civil servants, and cabinet ministers. It is not very far removed from the language of formal debate. Such a view of spoken English can produce an artificial and unnatural English and can even promote a kind of illiteracy which is as damaging to users of English as not being able to write literate English; for to have everyone speaking and writing only one codea standard written English codegenerates an illiteracy almost as grave as would be the case if everyone were only able to use a local dialect.(Ronald Carter, Investigating English Discourse: Language, Literacy, and Literature. Routledge, 1997) Henry Sweet on Spoken English (1890)The unity of spoken English is still imperfect: it is still liable to be influenced by local dialectsin London itself by the cockney dialect, in Edinburgh by the Lothian Scotch dialect, and so on. . . . [I]t changes from generation to generation, and is not absolutely uniform even among speakers of the same generation, living in the same place and having the same social standing.(Henry Sweet, A Primer of Spoken English, 1890) The Value of Teaching Spoken English (1896)Not only should English grammar be taught with reference to the nature of language and the history of English, but it should also take account of the spoken, as distinct from the written, form. The reasons for this seem to me many and excellent. For instance, it is a misfortune that the English language makes its appeal to the educated mind, mainly through the written and printed form. The appeal to the ear and the appeal to the eye, which should strengthen one another, are thus distinctly separate and divergent. Our orthography encourages this separation. It is, therefore, the more important that textbooks of grammar should make some attempt to counteract this tendency.(Oliver Farrar Emerson, The Teaching of English Grammar, 1896) The Lighter Side of Spoken EnglishIf Opals goin to be a school-teacher, mebbe she wants summat to practice on, grinned her father.Oh, Pa, you mustnt say summatit isnt a word, remonstrated his daughter.Aint a word ! shouted her father with increasing excitement. Well, hear that! How do you know it aint a word?It isnt in the dictionary, said Opal.Shucks, disparaged Pa, whats the dictionary got to do with it? The words that git into the dictionary aint common talkin words nohow; theyre written wordsnobody puts talk into a dictionary.Why not? questioned Opal, astonished at her fathers apparent knowledge of the making of dictionaries.Cause why? Cause spoken words is too lively for emwho can go round and keep track of every word thats spoke? I can make up a hull mouthful myself, and no dictionaryll ever know anything about itsee?(Bessie R. Hoover, A Graduated Daughter. Everybodys Magazine, December 1909)

Democracy in the Arab world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Democracy in the Arab world - Essay Example In the present world, the nature of democracy varies from state to state. Not all democratic states are actually democratic in nature. We can take example of the Arab world countries where the kings and the presidents hold the actual powers and the governments hardly take any step according to the desire of the public. â€Å"Presidents and kings remain too powerful, untrammeled by the limits imposed by effective parliaments and independent judiciaries† (Ottaway). The governments do not take into account the suggestions given by the citizens while developing or implementing any kind of law. There is a great desire of democracy on part of the citizens of the Arab countries but the dilemma is that in Arab countries, there are no social movements, labor unions, or widely supported political parties, which act as the foundations for development and implementation of a proper democratic system in any particular state. Without the establishment of publicly supported political parties, the real form of democracy can never be enjoyed in the Arab countries. There is hardly a true democratic state in the current Arab world. In the Arab countries, people have no awareness about the basic elements and benefits of democracy due to which they are not given importance during the process of any constitutional development and their suggestions regarding any political or constitutional matter are generally suppressed by the governments of their states. It is due to the continuous struggle of the western governments that people belonging to the Arab countries are becoming more and more aware of democracy. Today majority of people belonging to Jordan, Palestine, Algeria, Iraq, Iran, and some other Arab countries view democracy as the best form of government. There are enough Arab people belonging to different countries who want a western style democracy to progress in their countries (Hill). They

Maroon Societies in Colonial Brazil Research Paper

Maroon Societies in Colonial Brazil - Research Paper Example This means that they wanted to have their own social, political, religious, and economic organization. It should be noted that once slaves had been recruited by their masters, there was no definite time they would be freed. This means that they were certain of staying in their slavery in their entire lives. However, from the beginning of 1500s, slaves started looking for ways of forming their own free society. It was during this time that the Maroon society came into existence. In this paper, an in-depth outlook on the Maroon society of Brazil will be considered. The considerations will involve a detailed outlook of literature review dealing with the foundation of the community while looking at the political, religious and military aspects of the community. The term Maroon, also Quilombo is used to denote a group of Runways slaves in American. As a result, the runway slaves later came to form a society that is referred to as Maroon. The formation of the Maroon society is an important feature in the history of the world because the society enables the contemporary world to grasp the history of slave trade that begun towards the end of 1400 and ended in 1888. The term Maroon is derived from Spanish word ‘cimarron’ meaning feral cattle. The term was later used on runaway slaves because they were slaves that could no longer be tamed. The societies of Maroon were common in Brazil and Caribbean. The North America and other parts of South America were occupied by the Maroon. The Maroon society posed a serous threat to the organization of slave trade and also to slave owners. Their presence and organization meant that it would not be easy to have slaves for their usual purposes or for trading functions. On the other hand, the maroon society was a relief to slaves. It marked a sign of relief, hope and emancipation from their slavery. Currently, the Maroon community is not known by the term Quilombo. Instead, the community is currently termed as Mocambos. Th e Maroon community had myriads of societies that settled in Brazil. One of the most dominant communities in Brazil was Palmares, also called the palm nation1. This community was formed in early 17th century. The Palmares was well-organized politicaly, socially, and economically. Just like other communities, it was ruled by a king called Zumbi. This community existed for over a decade until it was conquered by the Portuguese. History of the Formation Process of the Maroon Societies As early as 1552, Brazil was practicing slavery in its administration and legal institution. During this time, Brazil was had a large demand for labor for its sugar and tobacco plantations. As a result, the demand for slaves from Africa increased. More slaves were taken from Africa to Brazil. During the period between 1570 and 1670, slavery was at its peak in Brazil. At the same time, brutality was at its peak in the slavery industry. Slaves were beaten, given impossible quotas to meet, and subjected to po or and abusive working and living conditions2. Given these conditions, slaves were forced to look for an escape route from their conditions. Following the harsh slavery conditions, slaves started escaping from the firms in Brazil and forming their own settlements. Despite the escape, slave owners, such Freidrich Won Weech, saw their escape attempts as another process of initiating into a new form of slavery. This is because as soon as they escaped, they were pursued and caught and thereafter subjected to some worse kind of

Effect of Alcohol Dependency on Spouse

Effect of Alcohol Dependency on Spouse Psychiatric illnesses are increasingly known to be common in the recent decades and affects over 25% of people at some point in a adults at any point in time, and at least one affected individual living in one every four families—(1). Alcohol dependence syndrome is the maladaptive patters of alcohol intake with tolerance craving, loss of control, and withdrawal symptoms (3). Bipolar affective disorder is episodic in nature with manic or hypomanic or depressive or mixed symptoms occur. Patients exhibit fluctuating severity of any of these symptoms interspersed with a symptom free (euthymics 2) or subsyndromal periods. Cwvently the prevalence of bipolar affective disorder (BPAD) is around 0.4-0.5% with an 1 year prevalence of 0.5to 1.4% and a life-time prevalence of about 2.6 to 7.8% (4). The life-time prevalence of bipolar disorder is about 20.8 per 1000 population in India (6  ±); and that of alcohol use ranges from 1.15% to upto 50% in general (8, 9). Burden Definition (10) – Platt Stigmatization, chronic emotional and economic burden from caring are endured by the families of individuals with psychiatric illness. The illness impact on the primary caregiver’s leisure time activities work and social relationships. These deficits evoke different reactions infifferent or expressed emotional reaction towards the patients, and a sense of insufficiency and helplessness in themselves, all of which impact on the progression and prognosis of the patient’s illness (1). AIM To compare the family burden, the quality of life and psychiatric morbidity between female spouses of patients with alcohol dependence syndrome, patients with schizophrenia, and patients with bipolar affective disorder OBJECTIVES To find the family burden and quality of life in female spouses of patients with alcohol dependence, schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder To evaluate the prevalence of psychiatric morbidity in female spouses of patients of these three groups To study the association between symptom severity in patients, perceived apathy, significant life events and family burden, and the quality of life and psychiatric morbidity in female spouses in these groups To compare psychiatric morbidity, family burden of care and quality of life in female spouses between all patient groups. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The sample is drawn from male patients with female spouses attending the outpatient Psychiatry department at this hospital. Design: Crosssectional, comparative study, including 64 patients with alcohol dependence, 64 patients with schizophrenia, and 64 patients with bipolar affective disorder, and their female spouses. With consecutive sampling from Outpatient department, a total of 192 patients with their spouses are taken up for the study. Duration and period of Study- 4 months Inclusion criteria: male patients with equal to or more than 10 year duration of alcohol dependence or schizophrenia or bipolar affective disorder, satisfying the criteria for the corresponding DSM IV-TR diagnoses patients with onset of psychiatric symptoms/disorder after marriage female spouses who provide care for the patients participa nts should be not less than 60 years of age participants to be willing to provide informed consent for the interview and assessment patients willing to allow spouse to be assessed Exclusion criteria: those who did not give their consent refusal to allow spouse to be evaluated patients and/or their spouses with any chronic general medical illness spouses with a history of substance abuse, suicide or previous history of psychiatric symptoms and intervention spouses with a family history of psychiatric illness spouses related to the patients by consanguinity Instruments used A semistructured profoma to collect the sociodemographic details, family history details and a semistructured clinical profile International Classification of Diseases ICD-10 Shortform Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire SADDQ Clinical Global Impressions CGI-BP bipolar and CGI-SCH schizophrenia, severity scales Presumptive stressful life events scale PSLES Apathy inventory –caregiver version Burden Assessment Scale BAS; Caregiver Reaction Assessment -Selfesteem, High life-esteem -positive caregiving, Burnout -Negative Caregiving subscales –CRASH-BOUNCE score WHO Quality Of Life WHOQOL –BREF-1 General Health Questionnaire GHQ-12 MINI plus 5.0.0 v Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview –plus Beck Depression Inventory BDI; Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale –anxiety HADS-A CGI-BP Bipolar disorder is a cyclic and polymorphic disease. Patients may show manic, hipomanic, depressive or mixed symptoms, and they may be in partial or complete remission. For this reason, the assessment of the course, severity and outcome of the disorder is very complex. Most of the available psychometric instruments have been designed for the assessment of acute episodes of specific polarity. The CGI-BP-M, a user-friendly scale for the assessment of manic, hypomanic, depressive or mixed symptoms, and long-term outcome of bipolar disorder, is a useful tool for the assessment of the efficacy of several treatments. CGI-S: Amongst the most widely used of extant brief assessment  tools in psychiatry, the CGI is a 3-item observer-rated  scale that measures illness severity (CGIS), global  improvement or change (CGIC) and therapeutic response.   The illness severity and improvement sections of the  instrument are used more frequently than the therapeutic  response section in both clinical and research settings. Amongst the most widely used of extant brief assessment  tools in psychiatry, the CGI is a 3-item observer-rated scale that measures illness severity (CGIS), global  improvement or change (CGIC) and therapeutic response. The illness severity and improvement sections of the  instrument are used more frequently than the therapeutic  response section in both clinical and research settings. Burden Assessment Schedule (BAS) (104): [ANNEXURE IV] It is an instrument to assess burden on caregivers of chronic mentally ill. It was developed to assess subjective burden in Indian population, as many of the burden assessment instruments developed in the west were not culturally suited to Indian population. This schedule has 40 items and 9 domains. The different domains are Spouse related, Physical and mental health, External support, Caregivers routine, Support of patient, Taking responsibility, Other relations, Patients, Patients behaviour and Caregivers strategy. Each of these 40 items was rated on a 3-point scale marked 1-3. The responses were not at all, to some extent and very much. Depending on the questions were framed, the responses and the score for each of those responses would vary. In this study the schedule was modified by arranging 40- items into the above 9 domains. Total score of each domain was calculated separately and at the end the total burden was calculated. This was done to get the domain score apart from the total score. In the spouse was replaced with either son, daughter, brother, sister, mother or father, depending of the patient to the caregiver. In the items 2 and 4, the word ‘sexual and marital’ was replaced by ‘family’ as and when needed. The minimum total score of burden in BAS is 40 and the maximum score in 120. In this the severity of burden was categorized into 4 groups, in the following way, 40-60 –Minimum burden 61-80 –Moderate burden 81-100 –Severe burden 101-120 –Very severs burden Method Consecutive patients attending the Psychiatry OPDs of hospitals attached to J.J.M. Medical College, diagnosed as BPAD and Alcohol dependence according to DSM IV criteria who met the inclusion criteria and did not get excluded were included in the study. Written informed consent was taken from the patients or from the caregivers depending on their ability to give consent, following an explanation about the nature and the purpose of the study in the language in which the patient could understand. Sociodemographic details were recorded on the self designed proforma. The primary family care-giver was one who met at least three of the following criteria (108). Is a spouse, parent or spouse equivalent. Has the most frequent contact with the patient. Helps to support the patients financially. Has most frequently been collateral in the patient’s treatment. Is contacted by treatment staff in case of emergency. Burden Assessment Scale (BAS) was administered to assess the burden on caregivers of BPAD group and ADS group. Severity of alcohol dependence was assessed using Short Alcohol Dependence Data (SADD) Questionnaire. GHQ Validity Discriminative validity There was a non-significant trend in GHQ Total scores and Depression subscales  scores to be higher for carers using Admiral Nurse (AN) teams vs. carers who did not  (Woods et al., 2003). On follow-up, a significant difference was found on the Anxiety  and Insomnia subscale, where outcome was better for the AN group. Another study  showed that carers of dementia patients showed higher levels of distress as measured  by GHQ than carers for patients with depression (Rosenvinge et al., 1998). Furthermore, significant differences in GHQ scores have been found between carers  of people with anorexia and psychosis (Treasure et al., 2001). GHQ scores have also  been found to differ in carers of people with a head injury according to different time  intervals post-injury. The GHQ scores were higher for carers of people with a recent  head injury, which indicates greater burden in this group (Sander et al., 1997). Predictive validity Coping style has been found to contribute significantly to GHQ score variance, with  emotion-focused coping being related to GHQ scores in a study by Sander et al.,  (1997). Furthermore, coping accounted for more of the GHQ variance than disability  scores. Socio-demographic variables Gender has been found to have a significant effect on GHQ scores, but neither race  nor relationship to the injured person had a significant effect (Sander et al., 1997). Dimension-specific variables Strong positive correlations were found between the GHQ and the Relatives Stress  Scale (Draper et al., 1992). Responsiveness The GHQ-28 has been shown to be responsive to change in a study using cognitive  behavioural therapy in carers of Parkinson’s disease patients. Both the Total score and  the scores for 3 of the sub-scales decreased in response to the intervention (Secker and  Brown 2005). Both conventional and AN services led to lower GHQ scores overall  and 2 of the 4 subscales over an 8-month period (Woods et al., 2003).